Papal residence moved to Avignon

The relocation of the papal residence to Avignon under the influence of the French monarchy led to perceptions of the Papacy as a puppet of the French crown

Rival popes in Avignon and Rome

Council of Constance resolves the schism

The Council of Constance ultimately resolved the Western Schism, re-establishing a single pope in Rome

Damage to the Church's moral and political authority

The Western Schism had a profound impact on the Church's moral and political authority, contributing to the rise of critical voices and setting the stage for future reform movements

Growing criticism of the Catholic Church's practices and doctrines

Reformers like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus challenged the Church's teachings and practices, advocating for the primacy of the Scriptures and criticizing the sale of indulgences

Suppression of early reform movements

Influence of Wycliffe's ideas in Bohemia

John Wycliffe's ideas found fertile ground in Bohemia, influencing Jan Hus and sparking the Hussite Wars

Weakening of the Church's influence and the Holy Roman Empire's control

The early reform movements exposed the Church's vulnerabilities and significantly weakened its influence and the Holy Roman Empire's control in Central Europe

Martin Luther's 95 Theses

Martin Luther's 95 Theses, posted in 1517, criticized the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and other practices

Luther's refusal to recant and subsequent excommunication

Protection from sympathetic nobility

Martin Luther's refusal to recant at the Diet of Worms in 1521, followed by his excommunication and the protection he received from sympathetic nobility, catalyzed religious reform across Europe

Translation of the Bible into the vernacular

Luther's translation of the Bible into the vernacular made the scriptures accessible to a broader audience, fostering a spirit of inquiry and individual interpretation

Rise of the Ottoman Empire and disruption of traditional trade routes

The rise of the Ottoman Empire prompted European powers to explore new maritime paths to Asia and the New World, leading to a decline in the importance of land-based trade fairs

Innovations in business practices

Joint-stock companies, insurance, and double-entry bookkeeping

Innovations in business practices such as joint-stock companies, insurance, and double-entry bookkeeping revolutionized the way trade was conducted

Accumulation of wealth in the hands of merchant classes and financiers

The economic transformations of this period facilitated the accumulation of wealth in the hands of merchant classes and financiers, who played a crucial role in supporting the wars of European monarchs

Humanist movement and its emphasis on classical learning and individual potential

The humanist movement challenged the established scholastic tradition and led to advancements in literature, science, and the arts

Influx of Greek scholars to the West after the fall of Constantinople

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 brought an influx of Greek scholars to the West, further stimulating intellectual growth

Technological innovations and their transformative effects on society

Printing press, gunpowder, and the compass

Technological innovations such as the printing press, gunpowder, and the compass had transformative effects on society

Cultural achievements in literature, music, and the arts

The late Middle Ages saw remarkable cultural achievements in literature, music, and the arts, marking a transition from the medieval world to the early modern era