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Macromolecules and Cell Processes

Explore the structure and function of macromolecules, including carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, and their monomeric units. Understand the unique characteristics of lipids in biological systems. Delve into cell theory, the composition of cell membranes, and the specialized roles of organelles in eukaryotic cells. Learn about the dynamics of cell metabolism, the stages of cellular respiration, the transformative process of photosynthesis, and the intricate mechanisms of cell signaling. The text also covers the cell cycle and the principles of reproduction.

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1

Monomers of Carbohydrates

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Monosaccharides are the simplest sugar units and building blocks for carbohydrates.

2

Protein Diversity Basis

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Twenty different amino acids form proteins, enabling diverse functions like catalysis and transport.

3

Function of Nucleic Acids

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Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information, crucial for heredity and cellular operations.

4

Unlike other large and complex molecules, lipids are not made up of ______ chains.

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monomer-polymer

5

Substances like ______, phospholipids, and steroids are categorized as lipids.

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triglycerides

6

The ______ nature of lipids is key to the formation of cell membrane layers.

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hydrophobic

7

The lipid bilayer is vital for preserving ______ integrity and enabling membrane fluidity.

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cellular

8

Basic unit of life according to cell theory?

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Cells are the basic unit of life.

9

Origin of new cells?

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New cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.

10

Size range of typical cells?

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Cells typically range from 1 to 100 micrometers in size.

11

The ______ ______ acts as a barrier separating the cell's interior from the outside world.

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cell membrane

12

The ______ ______ is selectively permeable, controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

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cell membrane

13

Embedded ______ in the membrane are crucial for functions like signaling, adhesion, and energy conversion.

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proteins

14

Membrane proteins function as channels, ______, receptors, and enzymes, facilitating the cell's interaction with its surroundings.

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carriers

15

Function of the nucleus in eukaryotic cells

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Contains genetic material; controls cell activities.

16

Role of cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells

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Maintains cell shape; facilitates intracellular transport and motility.

17

Unique features of plant cells

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Have chloroplasts for photosynthesis; vacuoles for storage and support.

18

______ metabolism encompasses biochemical reactions for converting nutrients to energy, synthesizing molecules, and waste elimination.

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Cell

19

______ are crucial for metabolism as they act as biological catalysts, reducing the ______ energy of reactions.

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Enzymes activation

20

By lowering the activation energy, enzymes regulate metabolic pathways and promote ______ biochemical processes.

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efficient

21

Definition of Cellular Respiration

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Process where cells convert nutrients into ATP, release CO2 and H2O.

22

Role of Oxygen in Cellular Respiration

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Oxygen is essential for aerobic respiration, the most efficient ATP production.

23

Outcome of Anaerobic Respiration

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Produces ATP without oxygen by glycolysis, regenerates NAD+, yields lactic acid or ethanol.

24

During photosynthesis, light absorption, ______ transport, and ______ production occur, resulting in carbon fixation.

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electron ATP

25

The ______ cycle uses ATP and NADPH from light-dependent reactions to convert CO2 into organic molecules like ______.

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Calvin glucose

26

As a byproduct of photosynthesis, ______ is generally emitted.

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Oxygen

27

In photosynthesis, the light-dependent reactions create ATP and NADPH by capturing ______ energy.

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solar

28

Definition of cell signaling

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Process by which cells detect and respond to signals via receptors and signal transduction pathways.

29

Role of receptors in cell signaling

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Receptors bind signaling molecules, initiating cellular responses through intracellular pathways.

30

Signal transduction pathway function

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Series of intracellular events that transmit signals from receptors to cellular targets, eliciting a response.

31

The ______ is a series of events for a cell to grow and split, including growth, DNA copying, and division.

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cell cycle

32

To ensure the precise copying and distribution of chromosomes, the cell cycle is regulated by ______ and ______.

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checkpoints regulatory proteins

33

In sexual reproduction, ______ leads to the creation of haploid gametes, which unite at fertilization to form a ______ organism.

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meiosis diploid

34

The fusion of haploid gametes during fertilization not only restores the ______ state but also contributes to ______ and species continuation.

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diploid genetic diversity

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Macromolecules and Their Building Blocks

Macromolecules are essential large molecules in biological systems, consisting of smaller units called monomers. These monomers, such as monosaccharides, amino acids, and nucleotides, are the fundamental building blocks for carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, respectively. Carbohydrates, composed of sugar monomers and polymers, serve as key energy sources and provide structural support within cells. Proteins, formed from twenty different amino acids, are the most diverse macromolecules, fulfilling roles in enzyme catalysis, transport, signaling, and structural support. Nucleic acids, made up of nucleotide polymers, are crucial for the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information, which is central to heredity and cellular function.
Detailed cell model with purple nucleus, orange mitochondria, blue endoplasmic reticulum, double helix DNA and green protein on gradient background.

The Distinct Characteristics of Lipids

Lipids differ from other macromolecules as they are not typically composed of monomer-polymer chains but are still classified as macromolecules due to their large and complex nature. They include various substances such as triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, all of which are hydrophobic and nonpolar. Lipids are vital for constructing cell membranes, storing energy, and acting as signaling molecules. Their hydrophobic properties are crucial for the formation of the lipid bilayer of cell membranes, which is imperative for maintaining cellular integrity and facilitating membrane fluidity and function.

The Principles of Cell Theory

Cell theory is a fundamental principle in biology that posits cells as the basic unit of life. It asserts that all living organisms are composed of cells, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells through the process of cell division. Cells range in size, typically between 1 to 100 micrometers, and are categorized into two main types: eukaryotic, which have a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which lack a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells may exist as single-celled organisms or as part of multicellular organisms, with each cell in a multicellular organism tracing its lineage back to a single fertilized egg cell.

Cell Membrane Structure and Function

The cell membrane is a fundamental component of all cells, providing a barrier between the cytoplasm and the external environment. It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins and cholesterol, which contribute to its fluid nature and selective permeability. This semi-permeable membrane allows for controlled entry and exit of substances, and also plays roles in cell signaling, adhesion, and energy transduction. Membrane proteins are integral to these functions, serving as channels, carriers, receptors, and enzymes that mediate the cell's interactions with its environment.

Organelles and Their Functions in Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells are distinguished by their compartmentalization into organelles, each with specialized functions. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material, while mitochondria are responsible for ATP production, the energy currency of the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are involved in the synthesis, folding, and transport of proteins. Lysosomes contain enzymes for intracellular digestion. Plant cells also contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis and vacuoles for storage and structural support. The cytoskeleton, with its network of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments, maintains cell shape and enables intracellular transport and motility.

The Dynamics of Cell Metabolism

Cell metabolism includes all the biochemical reactions that occur within an organism, serving to convert nutrients to energy, synthesize necessary molecules, and eliminate waste. Metabolic reactions are divided into catabolic pathways that break down molecules to release energy, and anabolic pathways that build complex molecules from simpler ones, consuming energy. Enzymes are vital to metabolism, acting as biological catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions, thereby regulating metabolic pathways and ensuring efficient biochemical processes.

The Process of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP, while releasing carbon dioxide and water as waste products. This process includes several stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. Aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen, is the most efficient way to produce ATP. In the absence of oxygen, cells can perform anaerobic respiration or fermentation, which allows for the continued production of ATP through glycolysis by regenerating NAD+ and producing lactic acid or ethanol as byproducts.

Photosynthesis and Energy Transformation

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and certain bacteria convert solar energy into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates. This process involves the absorption of light, electron transport, ATP generation, and carbon fixation. Oxygen is typically released as a byproduct. The light-dependent reactions harness solar energy to produce ATP and the electron carrier NADPH, which are then utilized in the Calvin cycle to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide into organic molecules, such as glucose, which can be used for energy and growth.

Mechanisms of Cell Signaling

Cell signaling is the mechanism by which cells detect, interpret, and respond to signals in their environment and from other cells. These signals can be chemical, such as hormones and neurotransmitters, or physical, such as light and pressure. Cells possess receptors that bind to signaling molecules and initiate a response through a series of intracellular events known as signal transduction pathways. Cell signaling can occur through various mechanisms, including autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, and endocrine signaling, each playing a role in regulating cellular functions and ensuring proper communication within and between cells.

The Cell Cycle and Reproduction

The cell cycle is the ordered sequence of events that a cell undergoes to grow and divide. It includes phases of growth (interphase), DNA replication, and cell division (mitosis or meiosis). The cell cycle is tightly controlled by a series of checkpoints and regulatory proteins to ensure accurate DNA replication and distribution of chromosomes. In sexual reproduction, meiosis results in the formation of haploid gametes, which combine during fertilization to restore the diploid state, contributing to genetic diversity and the propagation of species.