Differential Association Theory

Exploring the Fundamentals of Differential Association Theory

Differential Association Theory, developed by criminologist Edwin H. Sutherland in the late 1930s, provides a sociological perspective on how criminal behavior is learned. The theory asserts that through interactions and communications within intimate personal groups, such as family, friends, and peers, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior. Sutherland's work challenges the notion that criminality is innate, proposing instead that it is as much a learned behavior as any other social behavior, acquired through a process of cultural transmission.

The Nine Propositions of Differential Association Theory

Sutherland's Differential Association Theory is structured around nine propositions that detail the process by which individuals learn criminal behavior. These propositions state that criminal behavior is learned, not inherited; it is learned through interaction with others in a process of communication; the principal part of the learning occurs within intimate personal groups; when criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes the techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple; the specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable; a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law; differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity; the process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning; and while criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.

Application of Differential Association Theory

The practical implications of Differential Association Theory can be seen in various social contexts. For instance, a child raised in an environment where criminal behavior is normalized may come to view such behavior as acceptable or even desirable. The theory suggests that the likelihood of an individual engaging in criminal acts is influenced by the extent and nature of their exposure to criminal behaviors and values. For example, in a community where crime is prevalent, a sociable youth may be more susceptible to engaging in criminal activities due to their interactions with delinquent peers, while a more introverted youth might not be exposed to such influences and therefore less likely to adopt criminal behaviors.

Empirical Evidence for Differential Association Theory

Empirical research has provided support for the principles of Differential Association Theory. Longitudinal studies, such as those conducted by David P. Farrington and colleagues, have identified family criminality and ineffective parenting as predictors of an individual's propensity for crime, aligning with the theory's focus on the role of intimate personal groups in the learning of criminal behavior. Research by Osborne and West demonstrated a correlation between parental criminality and the likelihood of offspring engaging in criminal acts, suggesting the intergenerational transmission of criminal behavior. Ronald L. Akers expanded upon Sutherland's ideas with his own research, which found that both differential association and social reinforcement play significant roles in the adoption of behaviors such as substance abuse among adolescents.

Critical Assessment of Differential Association Theory

Despite its significant contributions to criminology, Differential Association Theory has faced criticism. One limitation is that much of the supporting evidence is correlational, which does not definitively establish causation. The theory also does not fully address why criminal behavior tends to decrease with age or the origins of spontaneous acts of violence, such as murder. Furthermore, it has been argued that the theory's focus on social learning processes may neglect the potential influence of biological and psychological factors in the development of criminal behavior. Nevertheless, the theory's strengths lie in its comprehensive approach to understanding a wide array of criminal behaviors across diverse social contexts and its emphasis on the importance of socialization in the development of criminal tendencies.

Concluding Insights on Differential Association Theory

In conclusion, Edwin H. Sutherland's Differential Association Theory has left a lasting mark on the field of criminology by highlighting the social nature of criminal behavior acquisition. The theory's nine propositions offer a detailed framework for examining the mechanisms through which individuals may become involved in criminal activities, particularly emphasizing the influence of intimate personal groups and the predominance of definitions that either support or oppose law violation. While empirical studies lend support to the theory, it is not without its detractors and limitations. Nonetheless, Differential Association Theory remains a foundational concept in criminology, offering valuable insights into the social underpinnings of criminal behavior and informing approaches to crime prevention and rehabilitation.