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The Enlightenment's Impact on Modern Economics and Penal Reform

The Enlightenment era revolutionized economic theory with Adam Smith's free market advocacy and spurred penal reform through Cesare Beccaria's critiques of torture. It reshaped Western political thought, influencing democratic values and social contract theory as espoused by Locke and Rousseau. Philosophes promoted progress and modernity, while enlightened absolutist monarchs sought to apply these ideals practically. The period also advocated for religious tolerance and secular governance, setting the stage for revolutionary movements like the American and French Revolutions.

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1

During the ______, which occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries, significant advancements were made in economic theory and penal system reforms.

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Enlightenment

2

Adam Smith's seminal work, published in ______, laid the foundations for modern economics by criticizing ______ and promoting free market principles.

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1776 mercantilism

3

Cesare Beccaria's influential book, '______,' published in 1764, played a key role in reforming the criminal justice system by opposing ______ and the death penalty.

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On Crimes and Punishments torture

4

Enlightenment scholars chronicling political transformation

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Darnton and Porter documented the shift; Israel offered recent analysis.

5

Enlightened absolutism examples in Europe

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Catherine the Great and Joseph II integrated tolerance into governance.

6

Enlightenment's role in US foundational documents

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Franklin and Jefferson infused Enlightenment ideals into Declaration and Constitution.

7

The ______ era is known for major progress in political philosophy, including ideas about the social contract and natural rights.

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Enlightenment

8

Philosophers like ______, ______, and ______ delved into the roots and objectives of governance.

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John Locke Thomas Hobbes Jean-Jacques Rousseau

9

Enlightenment's view on societal progress

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Society progresses through reason, science application.

10

Contractual basis of rights' impact

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Facilitated capitalism, scientific method, religious tolerance, democratic republics.

11

Philosophes' stance on social contract

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Supported social contract as civil society foundation; Hume, Ferguson questioned its necessity.

12

Philosophers like ______ endorsed the notion of wise monarchs ruling with logic and fairness.

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Voltaire

13

Monarchs such as ______ the Great of Prussia and ______ the Great of Russia consulted with Enlightenment thinkers for their statecraft.

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Frederick Catherine

14

Despite facing resistance, these royal initiatives aimed to translate ______ ideas into governance.

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philosophical

15

Enlightenment stance on religious tolerance

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Advocated for acceptance of diverse beliefs to prevent sectarian conflicts.

16

John Locke's religious theory

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Promoted personal, moral-based religion over institutional doctrines.

17

Voltaire's view on universal brotherhood

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Called for unity beyond religious divisions, emphasizing common humanity.

18

The ______'s ideals significantly influenced the revolutionary movements at the end of the ______ century.

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Enlightenment 18th

19

In contrast, the ______ Revolution arose from tensions between royal authority and Enlightenment thinkers who shaped ______ and cultural standards.

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French public opinion

20

These upheavals transitioned from ______-right monarchy to governance based on the ______ of the people, demonstrating the Enlightenment's impact on political development.

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divine consent

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The Emergence of Modern Economics and Penal Reform During the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, a period of intellectual ferment in the 17th and 18th centuries, was pivotal in the development of modern economic theory and the reform of penal systems. Adam Smith's "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," published in 1776, is often considered the cornerstone of modern economics. Smith's work, which critiqued mercantilism and advocated for free markets, was influenced by the economic theories of French thinkers like Anne Robert Jacques Turgot. In the realm of penal reform, Cesare Beccaria's "On Crimes and Punishments" (1764) was instrumental in challenging the use of torture and capital punishment, influencing the classical school of criminology and shaping the principles of the modern criminal justice system. Similarly, Francesco Mario Pagano's contributions to political and criminal law furthered the discourse on humane and rational legal practices.
18th century European living room with brass chandelier, round table with scales, inkwell and Panopticon model, books and two people.

The Enlightenment's Lasting Impact on Western Political Thought

The Enlightenment's influence profoundly reshaped Western political thought, laying the groundwork for contemporary democratic values and institutions. Scholars such as Robert Darnton and Roy Porter have chronicled this transformation, while Jonathan Israel has provided a more recent analysis. The political philosophies of the Enlightenment were not only theoretical but also practical, as evidenced by the policies of European monarchs like Catherine the Great of Russia and Joseph II of Austria, who pursued enlightened absolutism by incorporating principles of religious and political tolerance. In North America, Enlightenment ideals were foundational to the United States' creation, with thinkers like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson embedding these concepts into the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

The Enlightenment and the Evolution of Social Contract Theory

The Enlightenment era was marked by significant advancements in political philosophy, particularly concerning social contract theory and the concept of natural rights. Philosophers such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau explored the origins and purposes of government. Locke's "Two Treatises of Government" and Rousseau's "The Social Contract" argued that legitimate political authority is based on the consent of the governed, a revolutionary idea that became a bedrock of modern civil society. Locke's notion of natural rights to life, liberty, and property and Rousseau's concept of collective sovereignty through a social contract were influential in shaping the political landscape of the time, emphasizing the importance of individual rights and the legitimacy of government power.

The Philosophes' Vision of Progress and Modernity

The Enlightenment's philosophes, a group of thinkers and writers, were central to promoting the idea that society could progress through the application of reason and science. They argued that a contractual basis of rights would facilitate the development of capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance, and democratic republics. While the philosophes were largely in favor of the social contract as a foundation for civil society, there were notable dissenters such as David Hume and Adam Ferguson, who questioned the necessity of explicit agreements for the emergence of civil government and societal development.

Enlightened Absolutism and Reformist Monarchs

Enlightened absolutism was a political doctrine where monarchs, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, sought to implement reforms that would improve their states while retaining their absolute power. Philosophers like Voltaire supported the idea of enlightened rulers who would govern with reason and justice. Monarchs such as Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia engaged with Enlightenment intellectuals to inform their policies and reforms. Although some of these initiatives faced opposition or were only partially implemented, they represented the era's efforts to apply philosophical principles to the practicalities of ruling.

Advocating for Religious Tolerance and Secular Governance

The Enlightenment challenged the traditional role of religion in society, advocating for religious tolerance and the separation of church and state to prevent sectarian conflict, as seen in the Thirty Years' War. Thinkers like John Locke and Moses Mendelssohn argued for a more personal and moral-based approach to religion, while Voltaire called for universal brotherhood beyond religious divisions. These ideas contributed to the Enlightenment's push for a society that valued secular governance and religious freedom.

Revolutionary Ideals and the Enlightenment's Role in Political Upheaval

The Enlightenment's principles were a driving force behind the revolutionary movements of the late 18th century, particularly the American and French Revolutions. The American Revolution was steeped in Enlightenment thought, emphasizing rationalism and intellectual liberty, which became integral to the nation's founding ethos. The French Revolution, on the other hand, was fueled by the clash between monarchical power and Enlightenment intellectuals, who influenced public opinion and cultural norms. These revolutions marked a significant departure from the traditional divine-right monarchy to a system grounded in the consent of the governed, showcasing the Enlightenment's profound influence on the evolution of political systems.