The Fourteenth Amendment and Equal Protection
The Fourteenth Amendment's journey from protecting former slaves' rights to influencing corporate personhood and affirmative action is profound. It has been pivotal in cases like Brown v. Board of Education for racial equality, Reed v. Reed for gender discrimination, and in establishing the 'one person, one vote' principle. This Amendment continues to shape American law and society, addressing various forms of discrimination and ensuring equal protection under the law for all citizens.
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Corporate Personhood and the Fourteenth Amendment
The concept of corporate personhood, which grants certain legal rights to corporations similar to those of individuals, was significantly influenced by the case of Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad in 1886. Although the Supreme Court's decision did not explicitly address the issue of corporate personhood under the Fourteenth Amendment, a headnote by Chief Justice Morrison Waite suggested that the Court viewed corporations as "persons" for purposes of the Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. This interpretation, while not part of the official ruling, has been influential in subsequent legal developments. It led to a period where corporations frequently invoked the Fourteenth Amendment in court, often more so than African Americans, whose rights the Amendment was originally intended to protect.The Evolution of Equal Protection Under the Fourteenth Amendment
The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, was designed to protect the rights of former slaves by ensuring equal protection under the law. Early cases such as Strauder v. West Virginia and Yick Wo v. Hopkins recognized the Amendment's role in protecting against racial discrimination. However, the Plessy v. Ferguson decision in 1896 established the "separate but equal" doctrine, which permitted racial segregation for decades. This doctrine was eventually overturned by the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954, which declared that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional because it was inherently unequal and detrimental to African American children. The Brown decision marked a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement and led to increased efforts to enforce equal protection rights.Expanding the Reach of the Fourteenth Amendment
The scope of the Fourteenth Amendment has been broadened over time to address various forms of discrimination. In Plyler v. Doe, the Supreme Court held that states could not deny free public education to children based on their immigration status, emphasizing that the Amendment's protections apply to all people within the United States' jurisdiction. The Court also recognized in Hernandez v. Texas that the Amendment's protections are not limited to racial discrimination between whites and African Americans but extend to other racial and ethnic groups. The Equal Protection Clause has since been applied to combat discrimination against women, illegitimate children, and other marginalized groups, although the level of scrutiny applied varies depending on the nature of the discrimination.Affirmative Action and the Fourteenth Amendment
Affirmative action policies have been shaped by the Supreme Court's interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment. In Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, the Court struck down the use of strict racial quotas in university admissions but allowed race to be considered as one of several factors. This nuanced approach was further refined in subsequent cases such as Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger, which differentiated between point-based systems and holistic review processes in admissions. The Fisher v. University of Texas case reaffirmed that race-conscious admissions policies must be narrowly tailored and that race-neutral alternatives should be considered. These decisions reflect the ongoing effort to balance the goals of diversity and equal protection under the law.Gender Discrimination and the Fourteenth Amendment
The fight against gender discrimination has also been influenced by the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court's decision in Reed v. Reed marked the first time the Court invalidated a law based on arbitrary gender discrimination. This case set the stage for the intermediate scrutiny standard established in Craig v. Boren, which requires laws that discriminate based on gender to serve important governmental objectives and to be substantially related to achieving those objectives. These landmark cases have paved the way for challenging and overturning state laws that discriminate on the basis of gender, reinforcing the Amendment's role in promoting equal protection for all citizens.The "One Person, One Vote" Principle and the Fourteenth Amendment
The Fourteenth Amendment has been instrumental in establishing the principle of "one person, one vote" in the context of electoral representation. The Supreme Court's decisions in Wesberry v. Sanders and Reynolds v. Sims required that legislative districts be apportioned on the basis of population, ensuring that each person's vote carries equal weight. Additionally, the Court has ruled against redistricting plans that use race as the predominant factor, as in Shaw v. Reno, to prevent racial gerrymandering. These rulings underscore the Amendment's commitment to fair and equal representation in the democratic process.Want to create maps from your material?
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The principle of ______ ______ was notably impacted by the ______ ______ ______ v. ______ ______ ______ case in ______.
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2
After the case, corporations often used the ______ ______ to defend their rights in court, sometimes more frequently than the ______ ______ it was designed to protect.
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3
14th Amendment Ratification Year
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Impact of Strauder v. West Virginia
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Plessy v. Ferguson Outcome
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6
In the case of ______ v. ______, the Supreme Court ruled that children cannot be denied free public education due to their immigration status.
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7
The Supreme Court acknowledged in ______ v. ______ that the Amendment's protections go beyond just racial discrimination between whites and African Americans.
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8
The ______ Protection Clause of the Amendment has been used to fight discrimination against women, illegitimate children, and other marginalized communities.
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9
The level of scrutiny in discrimination cases varies, but the Amendment ensures protections apply to everyone under the ______ jurisdiction.
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Regents of the University of California v. Bakke ruling
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Gratz v. Bollinger vs. Grutter v. Bollinger outcomes
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Gratz struck down point-based systems; Grutter upheld holistic review for diversity.
12
Fisher v. University of Texas decision impact
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13
The ______ Amendment has impacted the battle against gender bias.
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14
The case that introduced the intermediate scrutiny standard for gender discrimination was ______ v. ______.
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Under the intermediate scrutiny standard, gender-discriminatory laws must meet ______ governmental objectives and be closely linked to those objectives.
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Significant court decisions have facilitated the challenge and repeal of state laws that ______ on the basis of gender.
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These judicial precedents have strengthened the Amendment's purpose of ensuring ______ protection for all individuals.
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Principle established by Wesberry v. Sanders
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Reynolds v. Sims' contribution to 'one person, one vote'
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Supreme Court's stance on racial gerrymandering in Shaw v. Reno
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