The Reign of Terror during the French Revolution

Establishment of the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal

During the tumultuous period of the French Revolution, the Committee of Public Safety was formed on April 6, 1793, as an executive government to protect the newly established republic against internal and external threats. Initially composed of nine members, the Committee's role was to oversee the various ministries and guide the nation through the crisis. Among its members were influential figures such as Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton, and Jean-Paul Marat. Simultaneously, the Revolutionary Tribunal commenced operations, marking the beginning of a judicial system that would later become notorious for its severe and often fatal judgments during the Reign of Terror. The Committee's inception was a response to the escalating dangers facing the revolution, including the counter-revolutionary Vendée uprising and the betrayal of General Charles François Dumouriez to the Austrians. The political scene was further destabilized by the arrest of Philippe Égalité, a member of the royal family who had controversially voted for the execution of King Louis XVI.

The Ascendancy of the Montagnards and the Onset of the Reign of Terror

The internal power struggle within the French Revolution intensified with the Montagnard Coup d'État, which occurred from May 31 to June 2, 1793. The radical Montagnard faction, supported by the militant sans-culottes and the Paris Commune, led by François Hanriot, successfully demanded the arrest of 29 Girondin deputies, effectively ousting the moderate Girondins from the National Convention. This shift in power heralded the beginning of the Reign of Terror, a period marked by the Law of Suspects on September 17, which broadened the scope for arresting and swiftly prosecuting those suspected of anti-revolutionary activities. The Revolutionary Tribunal became an instrument of expeditious and often deadly justice, culminating in the execution of notable figures such as Queen Marie-Antoinette and the Girondin leaders. The Terror was further institutionalized through economic measures like the General Maximum, which imposed price controls, and cultural changes such as the introduction of the Republican Calendar, which aimed to erase the old monarchical and religious order.

The Climax of the Terror and the Execution of Marie-Antoinette

The Reign of Terror reached its apex with the execution of the former queen, Marie-Antoinette, on October 16, 1793, an act that symbolized the revolution's break from the monarchy. This period also saw the crushing of the Vendée rebellion and the quelling of the radical enragés, who demanded more extreme measures. The National Convention asserted its authority by punishing cities like Lyon for their resistance to revolutionary rule. During this time, influential figures such as Maximilien Robespierre rose to prominence, with Robespierre joining the Committee of Public Safety and later becoming its most dominant member. The Convention's radical policies included the levée en masse, a mass conscription of citizens into the military, and the implementation of a scorched earth policy against regions that resisted the revolutionary government.

The Elimination of the Hébertists and Dantonists

The internal dynamics of the revolutionary government led to the downfall of various factions, including the Hébertists and Dantonists. The Hébertists, a radical group led by Jacques Hébert, were accused of conspiring to overthrow the government and were executed on March 24, 1794. This was followed by the arrest and execution of Georges Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and their associates on April 5, 1794. These purges were indicative of the increasing paranoia and factionalism within the revolutionary leadership, as Robespierre and his allies sought to consolidate power and eliminate those they perceived as threats to the revolutionary ideals.

The Cult of the Supreme Being and Intensification of the Terror

Amidst the ongoing Terror, Robespierre introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being, a state-sponsored deistic religion intended to supplant Christianity and embody revolutionary virtues. The Festival of the Supreme Being, held on June 8, 1794, was a lavish celebration designed by Robespierre to promote the new cult, but it also caused unease among some members of the Convention. The passage of the Law of 22 Prairial on June 10 further expedited the Terror by streamlining the judicial process, resulting in a surge of executions. The Convention also centralized its authority, reserving the exclusive right to arrest its members, thereby increasing its control over the government.

The Overthrow of Robespierre and the Conclusion of the Terror

The Reign of Terror reached its denouement with the fall of Robespierre and his close associates on July 28, 1794, in an event known as the Thermidorian Reaction. Robespierre's downfall was precipitated by his speech on July 26, in which he insinuated the existence of conspiracies within the Convention without naming the conspirators, leading to a loss of support among his peers. The subsequent political maneuvering resulted in Robespierre's arrest and execution, which effectively marked the end of the Terror. The aftermath saw the revolutionary government transition towards a more moderate stance, ushering in a new phase of the French Revolution known as the Thermidorian Convention.